Use of confocal linescan to document ciliary beat frequency.

We present a method to document ciliary beat frequency with the linescan function of a scanning confocal microscope, using ciliated tracheal cells and free-swimming rotifers as examples. Depending on the clarity of the original data, the ciliary beat frequency can be determined from the confocal linescan directly or from an intensity linescan analysis of the original data. Fast Fourier transform treatment of the data can be used to verify the derived ciliary beat frequency. The linescan approach allows analysis of simple ciliary movements displayed by the ciliated tracheal cells, as well as complex movements performed by free-swimming rotifers while feeding.

Editorial.

PIP: This editorial in the September 1995 issue of Asia-Pacific Population Journal identifies the issue's topic as the unbalanced sex ratios in South Asia, East Asia, and Southeast Asia. Noteworthy is the issue's overview of current trends in son preference and abnormal sex ratios at birth. Some of the data are drawn from the International Symposium on Issues Related to Sex Preference for Children in the Rapidly Changing Demographic Dynamics in Asia, held in Seoul in 1994. The Korean Institute for Health and Social Affairs and the UN Population Fund are recognized for their sponsorship of the symposium. Mention is made of some reasons for the unbalanced ratio: underreporting of female births; higher female mortality rates as a result of poor treatment or infanticide; and selective abortion of female fetuses. An imbalance is recognized for birth ratios higher than 104-107 boys for every 100 girls.^ieng

Social and economic support systems for the elderly in Asia: an introduction.

This is an introduction to a special issue on aspects of demographic aging in Asia. It provides "an overview of the issues related to the rapid increase in the number of elderly in some Asian countries. It describes how the articles contained in this special issue...demonstrate that the familial system of support for the elderly has persisted despite major social and economic change. It also briefly highlights the findings of the country studies."

Population and development in Asia and the Pacific: a demographic analysis.

PIP: The proportion of the world population in the less developed regions, in contrast to the more developed countries, has been steadily growing from 67% of the world total in 1950 to 74% in 1980, and it is expected to reach 79% by the end of the century. It is also projected that by the year 2025the less developed regions will include 83% of the world population total. Close examination of population trends shows that the new trends reflect demographic changes that have taken place in many developing nations in Asia and the Pacific. Despite reduction in the growth rate of Asia andthe Pacific, especially during 1980-2000, in absolute terms its growth will be the largest in the world during these 20 years, 908 million out of 1687 million of the total growth. Asia and the Pacific will contribute more than 45 million people a year during the final 20 years of this century. For the world as a whole, the new estimates and projections indicate a slow but steady decline of the crude birthrate from 36.3/1000 in 1959-55 to 28.5 in 1975-80, then to 23.9 in 1955-2000, and finally to 17.9 in 2020-2025. Since 1950 it is estimated that the gross reproduction rate increased, reached its peak of 2.21 in 1970-75 and has been steadily declining. Japan, Australia, and New Zealand, the developed countries in Asia and the Pacific, have estimated birthrates in the range of 15-18 in 1975-80. In contrast with the high levels which prevail in Western and MiddleSouth Asia, fertility declines of considerable magnitude have been realized in some countries in East Asia and South Asia. As was the case with fertility, the largest gains in mortality reduction have accured among the less developed regions. A widespread, though not universal, feature of recent mortality trends appears to be a recent slowdown in progress, which, in some places, is manifested by a cessation in mortality decline. Data for Asia also indicate that mortality declines have slowed during recent years. International migration continues to show significant shifts in pattern and direction. Within Asia's subregions, recent massive refugee movements have altered the normal growth patterns, although the sporadic and unplanned nature of these movements makes them difficult to quantify. The number of people living in urban centers in Asia is increasing very rapidly, many of the larger cities are doubling in size every 10 years. Meeting basic needs requires at least a dual taget for each less developed country (Lds) -- an increase in gross national result of high fertility in the past, a large presence of persons in the young ages in the education. Where the general level of income is low, this high proportion of children and youth poses special problems for social and economic development. It is recognized that population is related to development, either as an acceleration or impeding factor. Many governments in the region consider that controlling the components of their population trends is vitally important to the success of their development plans.^ieng

Factors affecting demographic trends in Thailand.

PIP: Although immigration played a significant role in Thailand's population growth in the later 19th century, the volume decreased in the 20th century and has been negligible since a quota system was implemented in 1949. Emigration is also relatively minor. By 1950 the mortality transition was well underway. The decline was rapid from 1950-65 but since then the pace of decline has slowed. With international immigration and mortality relatively low and unlikely to change dramatically, fertility is the major factor determining population growth in Thailand. A series of national sample surveys between 1969-79 indicate that marital fertility declined by close to 40% in that time. Contraceptive knowledge is now close to universal among married women, and the proportion using a method has increased from fewer than 15% of married women in 1969-70 to over 50% in 1981. Indirect evidence suggests that induced abortion, although illegal, increased in the past decade and may be quite widespread. Fertility differentials by education, occupation, rural-urban residence, and income are evident. The Thai national family planning program facilitated the rapid changes that took place but did not entirely explain them. The level of socioeconomic development does not appear to be the reason, but possibly the cultural context and the rapid expansion of the communication and transportation networks were the cause. The goal of the present development plan to reduce the population growth rate to 1.5% by 1986 is ambitious but feasible if fertility continues to decline rapidly in the Northeast, to decline in the Center and South, and to decline slowly in the North. An effective plan and action programs should be developed and implemented to achieve the goal. Easy availability and accessibility of family planning services including a variety of methods, appropriate incentives and disincentives including continued free distribution of pills, development of appropriate information, education and communication techniques, population education programs, and revision of laws consistent with population policy should be included in the program.^ieng

Population and development in Asia and the Pacific: a demographic analysis.

PIP: Close examinations of population trends shows that the new trends reflect demographic changes that have occurred in many developing countries in Asia and the Pacific. In East Asia the population growth rate has declined rather rapidly from 1.94% in 1960-65 to 1.38% in 1975-80 and 1.24% in 1980-85. Since nearly 85% of this region's population is accounted for by China, demographic trends there virtually dictate the trends for the region as a whole. The available data suggest that the growth rate in China declined from 2.02% in 1970-75 to 1.4% in 1975-80 and is expected to reach 1.27% during 1980-85. The sharp decline in China's population growth rate is expected to continue. It is anticipated that the population of East Asia will increase to 1.4 billion by the year 2000. In addition, the growth rate has declined significantly in Japan and the Republic of Korea. The growth rate is declining in Eastern South and Middle South Asia as well. Longterm declines have brought growth rates down in Sri Lanka and Singapore. More recently, the rate of growth also has begun to fall in India, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, and Thailand, while it remains generally at high levels in Bangladesh, Nepal, and Pakistan. In the Oceania region, 79% of which is made up of Australia and New Zealand, the growth rate is also steadily decreasing. Despite the decrease in the growth rate of Asia and the Pacific, especially during 1980-2000, in absolute terms its growth will be the largest in the world during these 29 years; 908 million out of 1687 million of the total growth. Asia and the Pacific will contribute more than 45 million people a year during the final 20 years of this century. For the world as a whole, the new estimates and projections indicate a slow but steady decline of the crude birthrate from 36.3/1000 in 1950-55 to 28.5 in 1975-80, then to 23.9 in 1995-2000, and finally to 17.9 in 2020-2025. China had a birthrate estimated at about 21 in 1975-80; and India and Indonesia had estimated rates in the range of 33-35. Japan, Australia, and New Zealand had estimated birthrates in the range of 15-18 in 1975-80. As was the case with fertility, the largest gains in mortality reduction have accrued among the less developed regions. In Asia mortality declines have slowed during recent years. Some substantial shifts in patterns of international migration have occurred in the flow of workers into the oil rich countries of Middle and Western South Asia. Migrants come closely from countries within the region, and there are growing numbers from India, Pakistan, the Philippines, Thailand, and elsewhere. The number of people living in urban centers in Asia is increasing very rapidly. Meeting basic needs requires a dual target for each less developed country--an increase in gross national product per capita and a redistribution of income.^ieng

Population control, distribution, and manpower problems of Thailand.

PIP: Responsive population policies proposed or underway in Thailand are intended to meet the challenges inherent in rapid population growth, rural to urban movement, and an increasing labor force. Data from several national sample surveys conducted from 1969-1975 highlight changing reproductive patterns. The annual population growth rate of about 3% between 1960-70 shows evidence of decline. Between 1969 and 1975, marital fertility has decreased by close to 20%. Contraceptive utilization has risen from 15% to 37% among currently married women, and by 1975, almost all Thai women indicated familiarity with birth control methods. The preferred number of children is also declining and differences in effective population control between rural and urban populations is diminishing. Governmental support of family planning was formalized in 1970 with the establishment of the National Family Planning Program. The success attributed to the program is in part due to its integration into the Ministry of Public Health's network of general health facilities. Rapid urbanization of the Bangkok metropolis has created over 300 slum areas within the city that lack basic urban infrastructure and services, excessive traffic, and uncontrolled land use problems. The governmental response includes plans to slow migration by creating incentives to establish industries in provincial areas, by decentralizing some government agencies, by developing additional regional centers with emphasis on control of land use, provision of adequate urban infrastructure, creation of new jobs and integrated urban, rural, and regional planning. Thailand's period of rapid population growth contributes to its expanding labor force. Although the unemployment rate is relatively low, 2.2% in 1978, underemployment, due to seasonal variations in demand for agricultural labor, is a significant problem. Regular national labor force surveys are underway so that more useful information for determining government policies and programs will be collected. Steps to correct the present imbalance in rural-urban income and improved agricultural technology will likely be necessary to forestall increased rural unemployment and underemployment.^ieng

Patterns of fertility decline in Asia: with a special reference to the case of Thailand.

PIP: Using data from a series of 4 national sample surveys conducted between 1969 and 1979 this paper documents the fertility decline now underway in Thailand. Cumulative and current fertility, contraceptive knowledge and practice, and regional variation in fertility are assessed. A 40% reduction in marital fertility over a decade is noted. The rapid pace of the fertility decline was accompanied by a rapid spread of contraceptive knowledge and use. By 1979 nearly 1/2 of all women were reported as currently using contraceptives. Fertility decline and contraceptive knowledge and use have been slower in the southern region than in other areas of Thailand, probably due to long standing cultural differences.^ieng

Interrelationship of culture and fertility: a review of Thai experience.

PIP: Examines the influence of cultural norms on fertility in Thailand. In particular, marriage, the family system, religion, regional cultural differences, and norms concerning desired family size, belief in astrology and fortune tellers, and breastfeeding are discussed. Includes a geographic description of Thailand, a brief review of Thai demographic history and policy, and discussion of data on fertility trends, differentials and birth control. The need for combined survey research and in-depth anthropological studies, in order to determine the interrelationships of complex systems at a time of social and cultural change and their effects on fertility behavior, is emphasized.^ieng

Factors associated with family planning acceptance in Bangkok metropolis health clinic areas (MHCs).

To study contraceptive use in Bangkok, 6,809 eligible women were interviewed in a community survey of 5 Metropolis areas. 34.7% were current users of interval contraception and the pill was the most common method. 29.9% were not currently in need of family planning. 18.3% of women were not using contraception, but only 6.2% were in need of family planning (FP) and not currently practising contraception. Non-acceptors who were in need of FP, had a lower educational level; 13.4% did not know about contraception but 52.4% previously used contraception. The most common reason for not currently practising FP was fears about contraceptive safety (37.5%). The prevalence of pregnancy in the community was 10.4%. The fact that only 6.2% of women were not practising FP and were in need of contraception suggests that the services in Bangkok are adequate to meet the needs of most women. However, the subgroup of non-acceptors in need of FP who were from a low socio-economic group require special motivation and services. 1,835 women attending Metropolis Health Centres in the same areas were interviewed to determine their choice of contraception; 57.4% chose the pill.

Breastfeeding in Thailand: trends and differentials, 1969-79.

PIP: A series of national sample surveys conducted in Thailand between 1969 and 1979 provide documentation of the trends and differentials in breastfeeding practices among Thai women. The results indicate a moderate and relatively steady decline in the duration of breastfeeding among both rural and urban women in different educational categories. Urban/rural differences in breastfeeding practices are prominent throughout the period covered by the analysis. Moreover, there is a negative association between the use of mdoern health services for delivery and breastfeeding, especially in urban areas. Despite the reduction in the average duration of breastfeeding, both infant mortality and marital fertility have continued to decline concurrently with the shifts in infant feeding practices.^ieng

Knowledge and practice in family planning of Thai women.

PIP: Family planning knowledge and practice in Thailand were examined, particularly contraceptive practices. The source of the data was the 2 rounds of the National Longitudinal Study of Social, Economic, and Demographic Change. The 1st round was conducted in 1969 for rural and 1970 for urban areas; the 2nd rounds were conducted in 1972 in rural and in 1973 in urban areas. The other data source was the Survey of Fertility in Thailand 1975 (SOFT). Both familiarity with contraceptive methods and salinecy of contraception increased substantially in the 5-6 years between the surveys. At the time of the 1st round of the Longitudinal Survey, about 3 out of 4 urban women were able to mention a contraceptive method without prompting while just under half of the rural women could. Most of the remaining women claimed that they recognized at least 1 method when a list of methods was read to them, but again this was less the case for rural women. By 1975, 92% of urban and 86% of rural women could mention a method without prompting, and almost all women indicated a familiarity with birth control when those who recognized a method from a list were included. By 1975 the method most familiar to both rural and urban women was oral contraception (OC). It was the most salient method as indicated by the much higher percentage of women who mentioned OC without a reminder than mentioned any other method. Contraceptive usage increased rapidly during the period under observation. The proportion of all women who ever used contraception increased from under 1/5 to over 1/2 in the 5-6 years covered by the surveys. Current use increased during the same time from under 15% to over 1/3 of all women. The increase was most marked in rural areas where the number of current users increased from just over 1 in 10 women to more than 1 in 3 women. By 1975, almost one half of all rural women reported having ever used some contraceptive method. With the exception of the youngest group of married women, there was remarkably little variation among the different age groups of women in terms of the proportion who had ever used or were currently using contraception as of 1975. By 1975, OC was the most commonly used method for both rural and urban women. Increased OC use over the period under observation accounted for more of the total increase in contraceptive use than all other methods combined. In each of the surveys, female sterilization accounted for a substantial proportion of the contraception practiced in urban areas. IUD use also increased over the period under observation, particularly among rural women.^ieng